Lecture 8: 1/27/11

Upon Hezekiah’s death, his son Manasseh became king. The biblical portrayal of Manasseh is generally negative, as he undid all of Hezekiah’s religious reforms, but the text makes little reference to the problem of Manasseh’s long reign with respect to the Deuteronomistic pattern of “good” kings having long reigns and “bad” kings having short reigns. This pattern is again interrupted with Josiah’s premature death. Josiah became king as a child, which lead to an increasing emphasis on textual authority. The Hebrew Bible evidences this in the discovery of the book of the law; because the monarch was so weak, the people needed a book which would provide an ultimate authority. In this way, the book reinforced Josiah’s position as king and prevented potential usurpers from undermining the boy-king. Hezekiah’s aim on centralizing the religion succeeded under Hezekiah. The mandate that worship could only happen in Jerusalem, the recitation of the book of the law and the destruction of the idols of all foreign gods reinforced Jerusalem’s centrality and therefore importance religiously, but also economically, politically, socially and culturally.

The transformation of Judaism provided a context for literacy. As the Torah became increasingly important, and the faith became a “religion of the book” literacy, aided by extensive administration and the centrality of Jerusalem, began to spread. This influx in literacy is evident in a large variety and number of inscriptions, including Lachish Letter 3. In the “Letter of a ‘Literate’ Solider,” a soldier protests that he does not need a scribe, evidence of the transition from a society in which literacy was restricted to the religious and political elite to one in which illiteracy was a social stigma. The move to an aliterate society emphasizes the change from king or priest’s word as the religious authority, to the written word being the supreme law.

Lecture 7: 1/25/11

The “Golden Age” for the Israelites ended with the division of the United Monarchy. As the Davidic line was from the south, David and Solomon consistently favored the two tribes in the south over the ten tribes in the north, leading to considerable unrest. When Rehoboam succeeded Solomon, leaders in the north saw the change in leadership as an opportunity to pursue more fair treatment. Their pleas were unsuccessful, and prompted Rehoboam, in his inexperience, to threaten the north with harsher treatment. Under the leadership of Jeroboam, the northern ten tribes created an separate state, Israel, while the southern two tribes became Judah. In order to decrease theological reliance on Judah, Jeroboam created shrines at Bethel and Dan and bamot, or highplaces, which were later destroyed as part of a series of religious reforms.

As separate city states, Israel was constantly subject to becoming a vassal to a larger empire. Judah experienced this to a much lesser degree, as it was less of a threat. Both states did however play the Assyrians and Egyptians off each other. As the Assyrian Empire rose to power in 745 BCE, Tiglath-Pileser III gained a foothold in the region. Later leaders Shalmaneser V and Sargon II employed an policy of aggressive deportation. Refugees from the north often escaped to Judah; this huge influx in population spurred urbanization, which, in turn, helped disseminate literacy. The increase of manpower helped King Hezekiah fortify the city of Jerusalem. The inscription on the interior of Hezekiah’s Tunnel was most likely written by the workers, who, evidenced by the writing on the inscription, were refugees. These fortifications were preparations for rebellion, a rebellion that was eventually quashed by Sennacherib’s campaign.

Lecture 6: 1/20/11

While the Tel-Dan Stele and Moabite Stone confirm the existence of a people who claimed to be the descendants of David, there is no evidence of his actual existence. There is a similar lack of evidence for the existence of Solomon. In this vacuum, the majority of the history of Jerusalem of this period is reliant on biblical sources. According to the Bible, Solomon inherited a powerful empire from his father, David. While David had a reputation as a warlord and empire-builder, Solomon was more interested in international trade, foreign alliances, and internal administration. Solomon married a daughter of the Pharoah; such a union is the Iron Age equivalent of a formal alliance, made stronger by her royal status. He also established administrative districts (1 Kings 4) which helped create revenue for the state, which he eventually squandered.

Solomon completed the construction of the First Temple of the Israelites on the site designated by his father. According to biblical tradition, Solomon built the Temple at the place where David built an altar, on the threshing floor of Arrunah, which is identified as being on Mount Moriah, the site of the Akedah. This was arguably his most significant achievement as monarch. This was a significant moment for the evolution of the Jewish faith because it contributed to the change from a nomadic to settled peoples. As myths of Mt Zion became more prevalent, the Temple’s invulnerability became central to the faith as an extension of the belief that Israelites were God’s people and He would protect them. These were clearly disrupted by the temple’s eventual destruction, and the later destruction of the Second Temple. The sense of loss of belonging ultimately contributed to the shift that allowed for synagogues to exist as holy spaces away from Jerusalem.

Lecture 5: 1/18/11

King Hazael of Aram-Damascus erected the Tel Dan Stele after his conquest of Dan sometime after 840 BCE. Smashed after the city of Dan was retaken, the inscription was built into the city Gate Complex in fragments sometime after 800 BCE. Excavated much later, the stele provides the only in-context extra-biblical reference to the “House of David.” While it does not confirm King David’s existence, the inscription evidences a people who self-identified as being descendants of David.

A second possible reference to the House of David is the Mesha or Moabite Stele circa 850 BCE. The rebellion of Moab, as chronicled by II Kings 1:1, sought the liberation of Moab after forty years of Israelite control during the reigns of Omri and his son Ahab, members of the House of Omri. The stele mentions attacking Israelite towns in Gad and reflects all the positive attributes a king wants to portray: conquest, liberation, and building projects. The black basalt stone includes a line that reads, as reconstructed by a French scholar, House of David after the addition of a “D” to complete “DVDH.”

 

Lecture 4: 1/13/11

The continuous settlement of Jerusalem has lasted approximately 6,000 years, since the Chalcolithic Period. Immediately preceding the cultural and religious upheaval of the Israelite conquest of Jerusalem, the city was Canaanite; named after King Jebus, the Canaanite residents of the city were referred to as Jebusites. While a fundamentally different society, the Jebusites experienced similar challenges to those of the Israelites, many of which were geographically motivated.

The presence of water in Jerusalem was crucial to the city’s founding and maintaining a society. The Jebusites built significant fortifications to protect the Gihon Spring, as it was one of the city’s few resources. Without the prominence assigned to a political and religious center, Jerusalem lacked many of the qualities to become any significant power. Water and the natural defense provided by mountains on three sides of the city were the only resources of city, leaving it often subject to domination by greater powers. As the Israelites often did, the Jebusites relied on a vassal relationship with Egypt for survival against aggressive empires, primarily from the north. The Amarna letters evidence this relationship, which ultimately transitioned after the entrance of the Israelites. Of the six theories concerning the emergence of Israel, conquest and immigration hold the most credence in terms of how the Israelites might have entered Jerusalem, but there is also argument for Jerusalem having been a city of mixed ethnic origins, implying that the Israelites were always there, but eventually distinguished themselves.

Lecture 3: January 11, 2011

The concept of an axis mundi is representative of a recurring theme in many religions: the association of the divine with physical height. While the idea of a “higher” power, may simply refer to one that is greater than mere mortals, the notion that heaven is in the sky, while hell is in the underworld is entrenched in Christine doctrine. The Bible, for example, claims that the Tower of Babel was a legitimate effort to reach God. But this notion of celestial divinity is not restricted to Christianity. Pyramids demonstrate the importance of height in religion, although perhaps a better example is the ziggurat, which was solely a temple, and not a burial. Many early Mesopotamians believed that a temple could be handed down by higher powers, and ziggurats were built accordingly.

Jerusalem’s construction was under a similar conception of divine design. This brings up thematic commonality with respect to the city’s history. After interrupting the line of Saul and founding the “House of David,” or Judaic line, David escapes factions still loyal to Saul and the tribe of Benjamin by founding his capital at Jerusalem and forms an impressive military-based empire. While David built a fabulous palace, he was unfit to build a temple; as a warlord, David had blood on his hands. His son Solomon, however, was more interested in being politically savvy than using brute force. With a new administration and taxation systems in place, Solomon focused on the building of the temple (completed 960) and of his palace (finished 947). What is now referred to as Solomon’s Temple conformed to traditional Near Eastern style and construction, though was said to be handed down from above. The few existing accounts of the Second Temple, rebuilt in the Persian Period, claim that the First Temple served as a model for the construction of the second, albeit the latter lacking in grandeur. The existing structure on the Temple Mount, the Dome of the Rock, is an Islamic Shrine that continues the building theme of divine involvement coming from above, as believers reach up from below.

Jerusalem’s magnetism for myths and legends has included the story of Mount Moriah. According to Muslim tradition, Abraham and his son Ishmael hiked Mount Moriah, after Abraham received instruction to sacrifice his son. Ishmael is spared, however, and Muslims believe that this axis mundi occurred at the present location of the Dome of the Rock. Muhammed’s ascent for his Night Journey is also believed to have taken place at the Dome. The importance of height and that which is lowered from above is universal to a plethora of diverse religions, as evidenced by the history of Jerusalem, which was said to have been built on divine instructions, featured two temples based on higher knowledge, and a site which continues to be a remarkable transit point – from the giving of the ram to Abraham to Muhammed’s miraculous ascent.

Lecture 2: January 6, 2011

With respect to traditional resources in the ancient near East, Jerusalem had none of the features required to become a great city. With the exception of the Gihon spring, Jerusalem has little water, which is a major concern in the building of settlements. While Jerusalem offers strategic military defense, as Jerusalem is situated at a high point with valleys on three sides, no major trade routes pass through or near the city, and Jerusalem provides no access to the coast. Interpretations of scripture, however, make Jerusalem a powerhouse city. References to the Tigris and Euphrates in Genesis’s creation myth suggest the Garden of Eden was located close to modern Baghdad, but the mention of a river named Gihon advocates Jerusalem. Psalms 125:2 asserts that God protects Jerusalem, stating that “As the mountains surround Jerusalem, so the lord surrounds his people.” These holy attributes began Jerusalem’s tradition as a holy city, and it has become one of the most significant urban centers in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Jerusalem: The Holy City

 

The Old City from Mount of Olives

Image Source: Metrolic Travel Guides (http://www.metrolic.com/travel-guides-jerusalem-the-holy-city-154535/)